Man, the measure of all things

The civilised world owes a great debt to ancient Greece which produced a string of great philosophers who professed divergent views on life and the universe. Although some of their views have been challenged or undergone drastic changes over the past few centuries, Greek philosophy cannot be dismissed in toto.

Way back in the 5th century BCE, Athens evolved into a prosperous city State in Greece under the strong leadership of Pericles. According to historians, he ushered in the “Golden Age” of scholarship and culture in Greece. It is natural that when a country is prosperous it attracts travellers from foreign countries. The city remained the cradle of democracy where people governed themselves on established principles. There were courts of law to settle disputes sans lawyers to appear for litigants.

As there were no lawyers to interpret the law, litigants sought the services of a new breed of advisers. One such notable adviser was Protagoras who used to teach law and advise people on knotty legal problems. He is reported to have charged exorbitant fees for giving advice. However, his approach to legal matters was quite different from what it is today.

Subjective

His method was to argue a civil case and win it rather than proving a legal point. He was more inclined to consider the philosophical implications of what he taught. As a widely travelled and experienced teacher, Protagoras knew that every argument had two sides. He also knew that both sides of an argument may be quite valid. He said what you believe to be true is subjective. His reasoning was new to Greek philosophy at the time.

Protagoras was not much interested in the universe or the existence of gods. While he considered them to be unknowable, he focused attention on practical problems that affected man.

There is a story that a man from Sweden visited Athens on a spring day. He found the weather to be warm. Another visitor who came from Egypt found the weather to be cold. According to Protagoras, both men spoke the truth because it depended on perspective and is therefore relative. Finally, he concluded that man is the measure of all things.

Society

Protagoras rejected the absolute definitions of truth, justice and virtue. He said they are subjective and relative. What is true for one person may not be true for another. For him, nothing was inherently good in itself. It is society that judges what is right for us. This can differ in another society which interprets what is right in a different way. Thus, all moral laws are subjective. Even today what they consider right in certain Middle Eastern countries are roundly condemned by the civilised world.

Protagoras lived at a time when Sophists held sway in Greece. Sophists were itinerant teachers who taught law and rhetoric. Although they were influential at the time, Plato condemned them as rhetoricians . But Protagoras stood firm in his views that there were no absolutes in judgements including morality.

Pericles commissioned Protagoras to write the Constitution for his kingdom in 444 BCE. However, his agnostic views were not favoured by Pericles. As a result, Protagoras was tried for impiety and some of his books were burnt in public.

With all such vicissitudes of life Protagoras is acknowledged to be the greatest Sophist. Even Plato who did not recognise him as a real philosopher devoted a dialogue for him. In a way, Protagoras was right in his thinking for most of us consider what we do or believe to be correct. At the same time we condemn what others do or believe in.

Harsh comment

When Protagoras said, “What is right in one group is wrong in another,” it drew a harsh comment from John Hospers. He questioned, “What exactly is a group?” According to Hospers, we are members of different groups such as our nation, State, city, club, school, church or fraternity. If most of the members of one group think that certain act is wrong does it mean it is wrong in all the other groups?

Protagoras is not totally wrong. Some of his views have formed the basis of certain tenets of modern social science. For instance, our values are determined by our culture or conditioning. It is impossible to form a culture free of such conditioning. Sometimes, we condemn Western culture as decadent. But do we have a aright to pass such judgements?

Facing imminent death or exile, Protagoras tried to escape on a shop headed for Sicily. Although the ship was wrecked and Protagoras drowned, he has left us a wealth of knowledge.