In the lime light

Alexander:

A great leader

The world has produced many great leaders in the form of monarchs, politicians, religious leaders etc. One outstanding leader of the ancient world was Alexander the Great who conquered and ruled over most of the world known to the ancient Greeks.

One of the most successful military commanders ever, Alexander III lived from July 20, 356BC to June 10, 323BC and was the Greek king of Macedon (336-323 BC). He conquered the Achaemenid Persian Empire, and extended his empire as far as Punjab, India.

Alexander was born in Pella, the capital of Macedon, to King Philip II of Macedon and Olympias, an Epirote princess. He was educated by several teachers, the most famous and important being Aristotle. A famous story about Alexander's childhood relates how, at the age of ten, he tamed a wild horse that no man could mount. This horse was named Bucephalus and remained Alexander's much-loved companion throughout his journeys. When it died (due to old age or from wounds sustained in battle), Alexander named a city after it.

The young man (16) first acted as Macedon's regent in 340BC when Philip led an attack on Byzantium. In 338BC Alexander fought under his father at the Battle of Chaeronea against the city-states of Athens and Thebes. Here, Alexander proved his mettle by completely wiping out the Sacred Band of Thebes, a fighting unit which had, until then, been regarded as invincible.

In 336BC, after Philip's murder, the army declared Alexander (20) as the new king of Macedon. Cities like Athens and Thebes, which had been forcibly taken over by Philip, saw this as an opportunity to regain independence. However, they soon realised that Alexander was a much tougher enemy, with him winning all his battles with them.

His empire continued to expand; into Persia, down the Ionian coast, into Halicarnassus, Lycia and the Pamphylian plain, over coastal cities before moving inland. At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander "undid" the unsolvable Gordian Knot, a feat said to await the future 'king of Asia'.

Then his army crossed the Cilician Gates, proceeded down the Mediterranean coast and took Tyre and Gazaeges. In 332BC, Alexander attempted to lead his army into Nubia where he was confronted with the brilliant military formation of warrior queen, Candace of Mero. At the prospect of defeat, he withdrew his forces and entered Egypt instead.

During 332-331BC, Alexander was welcomed into Persian-occupied Egypt and was pronounced the son of Zeus by Egyptian priests of the deity Amun. Henceforth, Alexander often referred to Zeus-Ammon as his true father, and subsequent currency depicted him, adorned with ram horns as a symbol of his divinity.

He founded Alexandria in Egypt, which would become a prosperous capital after his death. Leaving Egypt, Alexander marched eastward into Assyria (now northern Iraq), to Babylon and Susa. He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian capital of Persepolis, before storming in and capturing the Persian Gates.

In a three-year campaign, Alexander passed through Media, Parthia, Aria (West Afghanistan), Drangiana, Arachosia (South and Central Afghanistan), Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan), and Scythia, capturing and refounding Herat and Maracanda. He also founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan, and Alexandria Eschate in modern Tajikistan.

It was in 326BC that Alexander turned his attention to the Indian subcontinent. He invited all the chieftains of areas now belonging to Pakistan to submit to his authority. Some of them complied, but some refused. This led again to war and despite Alexander himself being injured, they won the war. He continued to expand his kingdom into India as well as Iran. However, in 321BCE, Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empire in India and overthrew the Greek.

Alexander was known as a disciplinarian and had many of his top commanders executed for misbehaving. As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers. He also announced that he would send the old and disabled back to Macedonia. His troops misunderstood his intention and launched a mutiny (rebellion); they were also against the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units. Alexander executed the mutiny leaders, but forgave the rest. Many plots against his life had also been hatched.

To create lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, he held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen. His attempts to merge Persian culture with his Greek soldiers also included training Persian boys in Macedonian ways.

On the afternoon of June 10/11, 323 BC, Alexander died of a high fever in the palace of Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon. He was one month short of 33. Various theories have been proposed as the cause of death including poisoning, sickness that followed a drinking party, or a relapse of the malaria he had earlier contracted. Other illnesses such as typhoid fever, acute pancreatitis or the West Nile virus have also been suggested. Recent theories state that Alexander may have died from overdosing on the treatment he took for the disease.

His death resulted in the empire being split. His son, Alexander IV was killed before reaching adulthood.

However, his legacy and conquests lived on long after him, and ushered in centuries of Greek settlement and cultural influence over distant areas. This period is known as the Hellenistic Age, and featured a combination of Greek, Middle Eastern and Indian culture. He and his successors tolerated non-Greek religious practices. Several Buddhist traditions may also have been influenced by the ancient Greek religion.

Alexander himself was featured prominently in the history and myth of both Greek and non-Greek cultures where he is portrayed as a legendary hero.