What holds the world together?

Although we are familiar with early western philosophers such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, most of us are unaware of sophos who lived prior to them. Sophos, a Greek word meaning ‘wise’, lived in ancient Greece c. 500 BCE.

The wise thinkers were mostly men who asked sophisticated questions about the world, nature and man’s position in the universe. Although religion and mythology had ready-made answers for most of the questions, the first philosophers used their keen powers of observation to ask questions. As in those days, even today one might ask whether it is worth asking such perennial questions for which many religious leaders and thinkers have given their answers.

The sophos was someone who did not do a regular job. He did not amass wealth or desire fame and power. His only “job” was to ask “silly” questions about life and the world in motion. He had no regard for ordinary men and women who led a normal life. As a result, the earliest image of a sophos was an unkempt, absent-minded dreamer who enjoyed asking questions. He himself did not answer the questions and expected to know what others thought of them. However, it was generally agreed that a sophos was a wise man or a sage.

Philosophical questions

Although men dominated the scene, there were a few women who loved to ask philosophical questions. Aesara of Lucania was a Pythagorean philosopher relatively unknown to modern thinkers. In her book On Human Nature she says that through the introspection and contemplation of our own souls we can discover the “natural” foundation of all law and the structure of morality. Like most other philosophers, Aesara harped on the importance of reason as a guide while acknowledging the all-pervading presence of emotions. However, contribution to philosophy by women philosophers is minimal.

The sophos was considered a kind of prophet, priest and therapist in ancient Greece. Although he was not necessarily a wise man, he loved wisdom and was a truth-seeker. Although a modern philosopher is expected to live a normal life, doing a job and devoting his energies to think about certain questions central to man in a rational way, a sophos was quite a different man. In the history of western philosophy, the sophos was the forerunner of the modern philosopher.

The sophos belonged to the pre-Socratic philosophical tradition. Some of them were known as “proto-scientists” because they transformed mythology into rational inquiry. As they lived in a world quite different from ours, some of their questions may appear to be meaningless. Against this background, the first western philosopher appeared. He was Thales (c. 624 - 545 BCE) who lived in Miletus which was a Greek colony. According to a story narrated by Plato, Thales once fell into a well “when he was looking up to study the stars.” Thus Plato branded Thales as an “absent-minded” philosopher.

Rational evidence

For Thales the basic “stuff” of life was water “because the seeds of everything had a moist nature.” Thales’s theory came as a surprise to those who believed in mythical stories. For the first time he based his theory on rational evidence and careful observation. Like a true philosopher he came out with a rational discourse and invited others to accept or reject his views.

Anaximander, a pupil of Thales, came out with the stunning disclosure that the earth stays where it is because it is at the precise centre of the cosmos. Eminent Greek philosopher Aristotle said that Anaximander’s reasoning rested on the principle that “nothing happens without a reason.” Even today philosophers agree with this view. Anaximander going a step further than his guru said that the earth was fluid at the beginning. An extreme source of heat dried some parts of it.

Today the dried sections have become land. Similarly, living organisms arose at various stages of the drying process. Later on his views influenced the Theory of Evolution. Anaximander’s pupil Anaximenes went a step further and said, “pneuma” (air) was the ultimate spirit that holds the world together.

Heraclitus (c. 500 BCE) also considered what holds the world together. He is credited with “Logos”, one of the richest and most complex terms in ancient philosophy. Logos could mean intelligence, speech, discourse, thought, reason, word or meaning. Heraclitus’s Logos is like god. It is a process, not an entity.

Aphorism

Heraclitus is well known for his aphorism, “Everything is in a state of flux, or change and war and strife between opposites is the eternal condition of the universe.” He ridiculed Homer and said that he should have been whipped for coming out with weird ideas. Heraclitus also questioned the intellectual integrity of Pythagoras and Xenophanes. He thought the principal elements of nature were fire, earth and water. Out of them fire was the primary element which controlled the other two.

Mirroring the oriental concept of Yin and Yang, Heraclitus said the dynamism between opponents was the driving force of the universe. According to him “God is day and night, winter and summer, war and peace, fullness and hunger.” Strife and opposition are necessary. While opposites may enjoy periods of alternating dominance, none shall ever completely extinguish or vanquish the other.

Heraclitus was a mystic like his Chinese counterpart Lao Tzu. Although there are a lot of similarities between their writings, it is not clear whether one was influenced by the other. However, Heraclitus’s doctrine of flux has been accepted by many modern philosophers including Henri Bergson.