You are the problem!

It’s May Day. Workers, trade unionists and party leaders are rushing to their venues to hold rallies. You are a retired government servant who has lost interest in May Day or trade union activities. You drive your old car to the nearest town to buy pressure tablets and some vegetables. The roads are deserted and most of the shops are closed. There is a big rush at the pharmacy. The customers do not wait in a queue. Everybody wants to be served first. The salesgirl mutters something under her breath.

Finally you manage to buy your pressure tablets and vegetables at the market. But your car begins to give you trouble. The engine does not start. You look for a mechanic as if searching for a black cat in a dark room. Finding no mechanic you phone your garage owner but there is no answer. You try to reach him on his mobile phone, but you hear the standard message: “The mobile you phoned is not responding.”

You return home exasperated. You are about to explode in a fit of rage. You shake your fist and begin to shout obscenities. If you have ever had an experience anything close to the one just described, you’ve shared the nearly universal sense of frustration, anger and anxiety caused by people and events beyond your control.

Stoicism

This kind of reaction to external events was so common even in the past that a school of philosophy sprang up in ancient Greece to deal with such problems. It was called Stoicism and those who practised it were known as Stoics.

Before Stoicism emerged most people thought that pleasure was always good and pain was bad. According to Stoics, happiness comes only through detachment from all “externals.” They believed that a disciplined and reasonable man could lead a happy life under any circumstances. They contended that nobody could make you happy or unhappy without your consent.

Regarding the opening episode, a Stoic would say that your anger and frustration are self-induced. In fact, nothing happens to you. You create problems for yourself. In other words, you are the problem!

A reasonable man might wonder whether it is possible to remain calm and collected under all circumstances. Does it mean that certain circumstances make us unhappy and distressed? Then why do some people seem to be happy all the time? On the other hand, why do rich and powerful people feel unhappy? Does it mean that happiness is a matter of attitude?

Hedonism

In fact, Stoicism sprang to refute Hedonism which espoused the cause of pleasure. According to Hedonists, you must always pursue pleasure. Some Hedonists, however, stressed the pursuit of pleasure while others emphasised the avoidance of pain. Those who believe in Hedonism say that we must seek pleasure and avoid pain because the pursuit of pleasure is our birthright. Aristippus (c.430 - 350 BCE) taught that pleasure is the principal motive for living and that it is always good.

Then came Epicurus (341 - 270 BCE) who rejected the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle after studying it. Claiming that he was a self-taught philosopher Epicurus founded the Garden, his own school of philosophy. The Garden had unusual features. He accepted all who came there to learn philosophy: housewives, prostitutes, slaves and aristocrats. His favourite pupil Mysis was his own slave. His mistress Leontium was a courtesan who wrote many books on philosophy with his help.

Although Epicurus was a rather unconventional philosopher, he went beyond Aristippus’s Hedonism. Epicurus said that we need not select every pleasure because at times we forgo certain pleasures. For instance, when we are under medication we avoid eating our favourite food items. Similarly, we regard certain states of pain as preferable to pleasures. A case in point would be a man going in for an operation. The operation itself will give him pain, but on recovery he will enjoy pleasure.

Epicureanism

It is wrong to believe that Epicureanism was a philosophy of self-indulgence. For him the highest pleasures are intellectual, not physical. In its broadest sense, Epicurus’s teaching consisted of the pursuit of happiness by eliminating mental and physical pain. He said that mental pain was worse than physical pain. According to him, we need not fear death since there is no afterlife or avenging gods.

A criticism levelled against Epicurus is that he promoted a promiscuous or decadent lifestyle by opening his school. On the other contrary, he knew that bodily pleasures brought with them immense pain or painful consequences. Although Epicurus rejected the concept of an all powerful God, he was not an atheist. He believed that there were gods but they had no interest in human affairs.

Epicurus’s philosophy seems to be a curious mix of opposing ideas. He was a Hedonist who preached prudence and temperance. He was a theist who rejected divine intervention. He was also an atomist who upheld mechanism and free will. Epicureanism enjoyed 600 years of tremendous popularity until it was eclipsed by Stoicism.