by R. S. Karunaratne

Different types of words

The wordstock of English consists of different types of words. These are classified according to the way they are used. Basically, there are nine different types of words.

1. Ordinary or literal words. These words have no hidden meanings.

Mother gave me a cup of coffee.

Shyamala is a well-known journalist.

My English teacher was a kind person.

Do you travel by bus?

Everybody wants to be happy.

2. Figurative words

These words have a hidden meaning. Similes and metaphors belong to this category.

Velusumana fought like a lion. (Simile)

Velusumana was a lion in the fight. (Metaphor)

We compare Velusamana to a lion because he is brave. We mean just that and no more.

3. Literary words

These are the words used by authors, poets and literary critics. We hardly use them in conversation.

Leela was the protagonist in the novel.

The film had a lot of flashbacks.

The novelist has used the stream of consciousness method.

4. Colloquial words

Colloquial words are used in everyday speech. Some colloquial words are slightly vulgar and they are not used in civilised society.

I know that chap.

That guy is following me.

5. Slang words

These are inadmissible or taboo on polite occasions. Some slang words gain currency in polite language.

The defeated party is trying to stage a come-back.

6. Poetic words

Poets have a 'poetic licence' to use certain words in poetry. Some of the words they use include: 'thou, ere, morn, eve, oft and zephyr.

7. Technical words

Every profession has its own stock of technical or specialised words.

Some of these words cannot be understood by outsiders.

I want to insert this obit in the Sunday Observer. (Obituary)

'To be run out' is a technical term used in cricket.

Visual aids are used in education.

The lawyer was warned not to ask leading questions. (eg. So, you were there at the murder scene?)

8. Commercial words

These are used in business. Some of the commercial words used in the past such as 'herewith, in receipt of, the same, ditto, ultimo, even date' have been discarded.

9. Foreign words

English has borrowed many foreign terms mainly from Latin and French. Following foreign words seen to be in the process of becoming English.

ad infinitum (Latin) to infinity

Chic: stylish

Ennui: mental weariness resulting from boredom

Faux pas: (French) a false step

Nom de plume: (French) a pen-name

Viva voce: (Latin) an oral examination.

Know the roots of English words

The root of a word is the part of it common to all allied words. Modern English words have grown from old English, Latin and Greek roots. It is interesting and useful to know them.

Here is a short list of old English roots. Note the modern English words derived from them.

beaten (to strike): bat, batter, battle, beat

beran (to carry): bear, berth, bier, birth, brood, brother, burden

bindan (to bind): band, bandage, bind, bond, bondage, bundle

brecan (to break): brake, breach, break, breakfast, brick, brittle

ceapian (to buy): cheap, cheapen, chop

cwic (alive): quick, quicken, quicksand, quickest, quicksilver

dragan (to drag): drag, draught, draw

faran (to go): far, ferry, thoroughfare, welfare

fleotan (to float): afloat, fleet, float, flotsam

foda (food): feed, fodder, food, forage, foray, foster

grafan (to dig): engrave, graft, grave, groove, grove

sceran (to cut): score, scrap, scrape, share, sharp, shear, sheer, sheriff, shire, shirt, shore, short, shred, skirt

slagan (to strike): slaughter, slay, sledge-hammer, slog

stede (place): farmstead, homestead, instead, steady

tredan (to walk): trade, tradesman, treat

twa (two): between, twain, twin, two

wegan (to move): wag, wagon, way, weigh

witan (to know): to wit, wisdom, wise, wit, witness

wyrt (herb): orchard

In addition to the old English roots, Englishmen borrowed Latin and Greek words to hold their own in the new world. Here is a short list of some of the common Latin roots and modern English words derived from them.

aequus (equal, impartial): adequate, equality, equator, equinox, equity, equitable, equivalent

altus (high): altar, altitude, exalt

amo (I love): amateur, amiable, amity, amorous

annus (year): anniversary, annual, annuity, biennial

aqua (water): aquarium, aquatic

audio (I hear): audible, audience, auditorium

brevis (short): abbreviate, brief, brevity

capio (I take): capacity, captivate, captive, capture

(To be continued)

Starters :

The present perfect tense

We form the present perfect tense with the present tense of 'to have' + the past participle. The Past participle of regular verbs has the same form as the simple past. In irregular verbs the past participle vary.

Affirmative

I have worked. (first person singular)

You have worked. (Second person singular)

He has worked. (Third person singular)

We have worked (First person plural)

You have worked (Second person plural)

They have worked (Third person plural)

Negative

I have not worked.

You have not worked.

He has not worked.

We have not worked.

You have not worked.

They have not worked.

Interrogative

Have I worked?

Have you worked?

Has he worked?

Have we worked?

Have you worked?

Have they worked?

Negative interrogative

Have I not worked?

Have you not worked?

Has he not worked?

Have we not worked?

Have you not worked?

Have they not worked?

Contractions

Have not: Haven't

Has not: Hasn't

The present perfect tense is a mixture of present and past tenses. It is chiefly used in conversation, letters, newspapers and news bulletins.

The present perfect tense is used with 'just' to express a recently completed action.

Rumy has just gone out. (= Rumy went out a few minutes ago)

('Just' is used between the auxiliary verb (has) and the main verb (gone). If is chiefly used in the affirmative.

We used the present perfect tense for past actions with no time expressions.

I have read God Father

A: Have you had lunch?

B: Yes, I have/No, I haven't had it yet.

Yes, I had it a little while ago.

I have seen lawyers wearing black coats.

(= They still wear black coats)

Jayasena has written many novels.

(= He is still living and writing novels)

We use the present perfect tense with 'lately' recently; and 'yet'.

We have seen a lot of changes in Colombo recently.

I haven't passed the examination yet.

He has worked in our factory lately.

We use the present perfect tense with a word or phrase denoting an incomplete period of time.

Have you seen Manel today? (= at any time today)

We haven't seen any films this week.

(= at any time during this week)

We use the present perfect tense with a time expression.

I have been a journalist for ten years (= I am still a journalist)

He has smoked since he left school (= He still smokes)

We have lived in Colombo all our lives (= We still live in Colombo)

I have never been to London.

She has always worked with me. (= She still works with me)

Note how we use 'for' and 'since' with the present perfect tense.

We have lived in Colombo for 20 years.

We have lived in Colombo since 1980.

Print and electronic media use the present perfect tense in news bulletins.

The Government has temporarily suspended the city expansion project.

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Making plurals

To make the plural of many nouns we add ‘-s’. However, for nouns ending in ‘sh, ch’ or ‘x’, we add ‘es’ to form the plural. For certain nouns ending in ‘y’, we change it to ‘i’ and add ‘es’. For certain nouns ending in ‘f’ we change it to ‘v’ and add ‘es’ to make the plural. After studying the rules turn the following nouns to the plural form. Check your answers with the key.

1. bird ................

2. cook ................

3. head ................

4. bush ................

5. bunch ................

6. coach ................

7. fly ................

8. pony ................

9. elf ................

10. shelf ................

11. loaf ................

12. farmer ................

13. tree ................

14. chair ................

15. brush ................

16. box ................

17. dish ................

18. berry ................

19. story ................

20. lady ................

21. half ................

22. calf ................

23. leaf ................

24. river ................

25. coat ................

26. church ................

27. match ................

28. city ................

29. penny ................

30. wolf ................

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[Key]

1. birds

2. cooks

3. heads

4. bushes

5. bunches

6. coaches

7. flies

8. ponies

9. elves

10. shelves

11. loaves

12. farmers

13. trees

14. chairs

15. brushes

16. boxes

17. dishes

18. berries

19. stories

20. ladies

21. halves

22. calves

23.leaves

24. rivers

25. coats

26. churches

27. matches

28. cities

29. pennies

30. wolves