by R. S. Karunaratne

Sentence structure of English

Those who study English for examinations will have to be familiar with the sentence structure of the English language. We use ‘and’ to join sentences when their meanings go well together.

Let’s join two sentences with ‘and.’John has a pencil.
Kusum has a pen.

John has a pencil and Kusum has a pen.In the two sentences given above, the pen and pencil are writing instruments.

More examples:

The newly opened private university is well equipped.
The lecturers are highly qualified.
The newly - opened private university is well-equipped and the lecturers are highly qualified.

Amal wrote to me.
He invited me to his wedding.
Amal wrote to me and invited me to his wedding.
My boss is a fierce-looking man.
He talks loudly.
My boss is a fierce-looking man and he talks loudly.
We are going to hold a concert.
We would like you to sing.
We are going to hold a concert and we would like you to sing.
We use ‘but’ to join sentences when their meanings contrast with each other.
Padma is quiet.
Her sister is very talkative.
Padma is quiet but her sister is very talkative.
The river was in spate.
We managed to swim across it.
The river was in spate but we managed to swim across it.
You may go out now.
You must return home before 9 p.m.
You may go out now but you must return home before 9 p.m.
The food was delicious.
The hotel was dirty.
The food was delicious but the hotel was dirty.
I have eaten a lot.
I am still hungry.
I have eaten a lot but I am still hungry.

I like to read books.
My friends like to watch television.
I like to read books but my friends like to watch television.
Some people look fierce.They are very kind.
Some people look fierce but they are very kind.

Note: When a sentence has only one finite verb it is a simple sentence.
Datson lost all his money.
The baby slept.
The students listened to the teacher.
We played cricket.
Some private schools charge unreasonable fees.

When two simple sentences are joined together using ‘and, but’ or ‘or’, a compound sentence is formed. The compound sentence will have two or more finite verbs.

The children watched television and the adults chatted.Fiona tasted the food but she didn’t like it.Fernando goes to school by van or he cycles to school.Sam ran up the hill, stumbled and fell.

[Activity ]

Fill in the blanks with ‘and, but’ or ‘or’. Check your answers with the key.

1. The library is well-equipped .............. it does not have a librarian.
2. Post your application today itself ........... it may not reach the company on time.
3. The question paper was difficult ............... I managed to answer all the questions.
4. Her hair was long, clothes neat .......... she was rude.
5. Return the book tomorrow ............. you will fined Rs. 10.
6. I’ll go first ............ shall we go together?
7. Lesley has a motorcycle ............ his brother has a bicycle.
8. Mother is quiet ............. her daughter is talkative.
9. I am drawing the picture of an elephant, my sister is cooking ........... my brother is cycling.
10. You must practise hard ........ they will beat you in the competition.

Key:

1. but 2. or 3. but 4. but 5. or 6. or 7. and 8. but 9. and 10. or

Fun with proverbs

According to the Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, a proverb is a
popular short saying, with words of advice or warning.
Be familiar with the following proverbs and their meanings.

1. Even Homer sometimes nods
Homer was the greatest Greek poet. However, he too made occasional poetical lapses. Likewise, even the best of us are liable to make mistakes occasionally.

2. Every ass likes to hear himself bray
The ass or donkey is supposed to be fond of his own ugly voice. Similarly, foolish people are fond of their own voices. Most of them talk too much.

3. Every cloud has a silver lining
Every prospect, however grim, has its consoling side. So, don’t be downhearted!

4. Every cock crows on his own dunghill
People can boast of their courage in safe and familiar surroundings because there will be no one to challenge them.

5. Every dog has his day
Luck will come to all of us. If I am lucky today, you’ll be lucky tomorrow. The moral is that we should not boast of our luck.

6. Every family has a skeleton in the cupboard
Most of us have some secret to conceal from the world.

7. Every flow must have its ebb
Our life is full of ups and downs. Good or ill-fortune will not last for ever.

8. Every horse thinks its own pack heaviest
Most of us think that we have a greater load to carry than others. This is an illusion.

9. Every Jack must have his Jill
This proverb is a consolation to those who seek partners for marriage. Jack and Jill stand for man and woman.

10. Every law has a loophole
A clever lawyer can find a ‘hole’ in any law. By creeping through it his client can avoid punishment.

11. Every man for himself, and the devil take the hindmost
The first law of nature is self-preservation; ‘the devil take the hindmost’ means that ‘bad luck on the one who is last.’

12. Every man has his price No man is completely honourable.
If the price is big enough, anyone can be persuaded to act improperly.

Starters:

Use of negatives

There are many simple words used in conversation. However, beginners should be careful to use the right word in the right context.

Anybody / anyone

Both words are used in statements, negative sentences and questions.
I don’t know anybody at the police station.
Do you know anyone who can repair damaged water-pipes?
She doesn’t know anybody coming to school from Eheliyagoda.
Does he know anyone who can give me a lift home?
Anybody can climb this mountain.
Please don’t tell anyone that you spoke to me.
Anyone can say anything to him, I don’t care.

Anything

‘Anything is used in positive and negative statements and questions.
You can eat anything you like.
Will anything happen to me if I take this tablet?
He doesn’t eat anything in the morning.
The accused said he could not remember anything .
You don’t understand anything!
Don’t tell anything to my son.
Anything can happen after December 12.

Nothing

Nothing means ‘not+anything.’
A: What did you say?B:

Nothing .

There is nothing in the letter box.
A: What shall I do now?B: Do nothing .

[Activity]

Fill in the blanks with ‘anybody, anyone, anything’ or ‘nothing.’ Check your answers with the key.

1. There isn’t ............... in his bag, the policeman said.
2. Is there .................. in the room?
3. She hasn’t got ................. to do today.
4. There isn’t .................. on television tonight.
5. I haven’t got .................... to help me.
6. The police didn’t find .................... in the abandoned house.
7. Is there ................... in the bathroom?
8. Those poor people have .................... to eat.
9. A: What did he tell you?
B: ....................
10. Sita went out of the room but ................... saw her.

Key:

1. anything
2. anybody
3. anything
4. anything
5. anyone
6. anything
7. anybody
8. nothing
9. Nothing
10. nobody

Irregular verbs

Here is an interesting quiz on irregular verbs. As you are aware, irregular verbs have different forms in the past tense and past participle.

Fill in the blanks and check your answers with the key.

[Present tense] [Past tense Past participle]

1. get ............. .......................................
2. give ............. .......................................
3. go ............. .......................................
4. grind ............. .......................................
5. grow ............. .......................................
6. hang ............. .......................................
7. hang ............. .......................................
8. have ............. .......................................
9. hear ............. .......................................
10. hide ............. .......................................
11. hit ............. .......................................
12. hold ............. .......................................
13. hurt ............. .......................................
14. input ............. .......................................
15. keep ............. .......................................
16. kneel ............. .......................................
17. know ............. ..............
18. lay ............. ..............
19. lead ............. ..............
20. lean ............. ..............
21. leap ............. ..............
22. learn ............. ..............
23. leave ............. ..............
24. lend ............. ..............
25. let ............................
26. lie ............. ..............
27. light ............. ..............
28. lose ............. ..............
29. make ............. ..............
30. mean ............. ..............
31. meet ............. ..............
32. mislay ............. ..............
33. mislead ............. ..............
34. misread ............. ..............
35. misspell ............. ..............
36. mistake ............. ..............
37. misunderstand ..............
38. mow .............
39. outdo ............. ..............
40. outgrow ............. ..............

Key:

1. got / got,
2. gave / given,
3. went / gone,
4. ground / ground,
5. grew / grown,
6. hung / hung,
7. hanged / hanged,
8. had / had,
9. heard / heard,
10. hid / hidden,
11. hit / hit,
12. held / held,
13. hurt / hurt,
14. input / input,
15. kept / kept,
16. knelt / knelt,
17. knew / known,
18. laid / laid,
19. led / led,
20. leaned / leaned (leant / leant),
21. leapt / leapt (leaped / leaped),
22. learned / learned (learnt / learnt),
23. left / left,
24. lent / lent,
25. let / let,
26. lay / lain (lied / lied),
27. lit / lit (lighted / lighted),
28. lost / lost,
29. made / made,
30. meant / meant,
31. met / met,
32. mislaid / mislaid,
33. misled / misled,
34. misread / misread,
35. misspelled / misspelled (misspelt / misspelt),
36. mistook / mistaken,
37. misunderstood / misunderstood,
38. mowed / mowed (mown),
39. outdid / outdone,
40. outgrew / outgrown